sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 102        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 103        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 104        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 105        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 106        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 107        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 110        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 111        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 113        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 114        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 115        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 116        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 117        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 118        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 119        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 120        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 121        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 124        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 130        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 132            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 133        ),
 134        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 136        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 138        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 139        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 140        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 143        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 144        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 145        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 147        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 148        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 149        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 150        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 153        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 154        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 155        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 156        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 157        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 158        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 159        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 161        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 162        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 164    }
 165
 166    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 167    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 168    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 169
 170    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 171    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 172    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 173
 174    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 175    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 176
 177    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 178    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 179
 180    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 181    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 182
 183    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 184    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 185
 186    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 187    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 188
 189    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 190    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 191
 192    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 193    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 194
 195    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 196    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 197
 198    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 199    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 200
 201    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 202    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 203
 204    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 205    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 206
 207    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 208    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 209
 210    # Whether join hints should be generated
 211    JOIN_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # Whether table hints should be generated
 214    TABLE_HINTS = True
 215
 216    # Whether query hints should be generated
 217    QUERY_HINTS = True
 218
 219    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 220    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 221
 222    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 223    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 224
 225    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 226    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 227
 228    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 229    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 230
 231    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 232    RETURNING_END = True
 233
 234    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 235    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 236
 237    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 238    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 239
 240    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 241    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 242
 243    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 244    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 245
 246    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 247    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 248    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 249    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 250
 251    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 252    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 253
 254    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 255    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 256
 257    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 258    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 259
 260    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 261    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 262
 263    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 264    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 265
 266    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 267    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 268
 269    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 270    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 271
 272    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 273    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 274
 275    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 276    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 277
 278    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 279    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 280
 281    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 282    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 283
 284    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 285    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 286
 287    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 288    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 289
 290    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 291    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 292
 293    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 294    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 295
 296    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 297    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 298
 299    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 300    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 301
 302    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 303    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 304
 305    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 306    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 307
 308    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 309    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 310
 311    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 312    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 313
 314    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 315    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 316
 317    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 318    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 319
 320    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 321    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 322
 323    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 324    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 325
 326    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 327    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 328    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 329
 330    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 331    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 332
 333    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 334    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 335
 336    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 337    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 338
 339    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 340    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 341
 342    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 343    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 344
 345    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 346    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 347
 348    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 349    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 350    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 351    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 352
 353    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 354    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 355
 356    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 357    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 358
 359    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 360    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 361
 362    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 363    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 364
 365    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 366    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 367
 368    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 369    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 370
 371    # The HEX function name
 372    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 373
 374    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 375    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 376
 377    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 378    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 379
 380    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 381    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 382
 383    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 384    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 385
 386    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 387    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 388
 389    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 390    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 391
 392    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 393    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 394
 395    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 396    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 397
 398    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 399        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 404        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 405        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 406        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 407        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 408        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 409    }
 410
 411    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 412        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 413        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 414        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 415        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 416        "DAYS": "DAY",
 417        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 418        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 419        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 420        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 421    }
 422
 423    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 424        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 425        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 426        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 427        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 428            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 429            if e.args.get("windows")
 430            else ""
 431        ),
 432        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 433    }
 434
 435    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 436
 437    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 438
 439    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 440    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 441
 442    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 443        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 449        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 451        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 458        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 469        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 470        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 471        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 472        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 473        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 474        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 476        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 478        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 479        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 484        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 485        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 486        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 487        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 488        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 490        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 493        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 496        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 504        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 511        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 512        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 515        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 521        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 524        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 526        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 527        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 528        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530    }
 531
 532    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 533    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 534
 535    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 536    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 537        exp.Command,
 538        exp.Create,
 539        exp.Delete,
 540        exp.Drop,
 541        exp.From,
 542        exp.Insert,
 543        exp.Join,
 544        exp.MultitableInserts,
 545        exp.Select,
 546        exp.SetOperation,
 547        exp.Update,
 548        exp.Where,
 549        exp.With,
 550    )
 551
 552    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 553    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 554        exp.Binary,
 555        exp.SetOperation,
 556    )
 557
 558    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 559    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 560        exp.Column,
 561        exp.Literal,
 562        exp.Neg,
 563        exp.Paren,
 564    )
 565
 566    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 567        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 568        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 569        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 570        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 571    }
 572
 573    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 574    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 575
 576    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 577
 578    __slots__ = (
 579        "pretty",
 580        "identify",
 581        "normalize",
 582        "pad",
 583        "_indent",
 584        "normalize_functions",
 585        "unsupported_level",
 586        "max_unsupported",
 587        "leading_comma",
 588        "max_text_width",
 589        "comments",
 590        "dialect",
 591        "unsupported_messages",
 592        "_escaped_quote_end",
 593        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 594        "_next_name",
 595    )
 596
 597    def __init__(
 598        self,
 599        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 600        identify: str | bool = False,
 601        normalize: bool = False,
 602        pad: int = 2,
 603        indent: int = 2,
 604        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 605        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 606        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 607        leading_comma: bool = False,
 608        max_text_width: int = 80,
 609        comments: bool = True,
 610        dialect: DialectType = None,
 611    ):
 612        import sqlglot
 613        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 614
 615        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 616        self.identify = identify
 617        self.normalize = normalize
 618        self.pad = pad
 619        self._indent = indent
 620        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 621        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 622        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 623        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 624        self.comments = comments
 625        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 626
 627        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 628        self.normalize_functions = (
 629            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 630        )
 631
 632        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 633        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 634            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 635        )
 636        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 637            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 638        )
 639
 640        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 641
 642    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 643        """
 644        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 645
 646        Args:
 647            expression: The syntax tree.
 648            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 649                it is safer to copy.
 650
 651        Returns:
 652            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 653        """
 654        if copy:
 655            expression = expression.copy()
 656
 657        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 658
 659        self.unsupported_messages = []
 660        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 661
 662        if self.pretty:
 663            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 664
 665        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 666            return sql
 667
 668        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 669            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 670                logger.warning(msg)
 671        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 672            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 673
 674        return sql
 675
 676    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 677        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 678        if (
 679            not expression.parent
 680            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 681            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 682        ):
 683            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 684
 685            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 686
 687        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 688            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 689
 690            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 691
 692        return expression
 693
 694    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 695        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 696            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 697        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 698
 699    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 700        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 701
 702    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 703        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 704
 705    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 706        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 707        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 708        return comment
 709
 710    def maybe_comment(
 711        self,
 712        sql: str,
 713        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 714        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 715        separated: bool = False,
 716    ) -> str:
 717        comments = (
 718            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 719            if self.comments
 720            else None
 721        )
 722
 723        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 724            return sql
 725
 726        comments_sql = " ".join(
 727            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 728        )
 729
 730        if not comments_sql:
 731            return sql
 732
 733        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 734
 735        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 736            return (
 737                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 738                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 739                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 740            )
 741
 742        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 743
 744    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 745        this_sql = (
 746            self.sql(expression)
 747            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 748            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 749        )
 750        if not this_sql:
 751            return "()"
 752
 753        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 754        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 755
 756    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 757        original = self.identify
 758        self.identify = False
 759        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 760        self.identify = original
 761        return result
 762
 763    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 764        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 765            return name.upper()
 766        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 767            return name.lower()
 768        return name
 769
 770    def indent(
 771        self,
 772        sql: str,
 773        level: int = 0,
 774        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 775        skip_first: bool = False,
 776        skip_last: bool = False,
 777    ) -> str:
 778        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 779            return sql
 780
 781        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 782        lines = sql.split("\n")
 783
 784        return "\n".join(
 785            (
 786                line
 787                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 788                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 789            )
 790            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 791        )
 792
 793    def sql(
 794        self,
 795        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 796        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 797        comment: bool = True,
 798    ) -> str:
 799        if not expression:
 800            return ""
 801
 802        if isinstance(expression, str):
 803            return expression
 804
 805        if key:
 806            value = expression.args.get(key)
 807            if value:
 808                return self.sql(value)
 809            return ""
 810
 811        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 812
 813        if callable(transform):
 814            sql = transform(self, expression)
 815        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 816            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 817
 818            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 819                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 820            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 821                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 822            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 823                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 824            else:
 825                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 826        else:
 827            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 828
 829        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 830
 831    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 832        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 833        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 834        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 835
 836    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 837        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 838        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 839        options = expression.args.get("options")
 840        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 841        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 842        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 843        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 844        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 845
 846    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 847        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 848            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 849        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 850        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 851
 852    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 853        return ".".join(
 854            self.sql(part)
 855            for part in (
 856                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 857                expression.args.get("db"),
 858                expression.args.get("table"),
 859                expression.args.get("this"),
 860            )
 861            if part
 862        )
 863
 864    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 865        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 866
 867        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 868            join_mark = ""
 869            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 870
 871        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 872
 873    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 874        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 875        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 876        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 877        return f"{position}{this}"
 878
 879    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 880        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 881        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 882        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 883        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 884        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 885        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 886        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 887        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 888
 889        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 890            kind = ""
 891
 892        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 893
 894    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 896        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 897        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 898
 899    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 901        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 902            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 903        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 904            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 905        else:
 906            persisted = ""
 907        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 908
 909    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 910        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 911
 912    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 913        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 914            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 915        else:
 916            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 917
 918        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 919
 920    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 921        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 922    ) -> str:
 923        this = ""
 924        if expression.this is not None:
 925            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 926            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 927
 928        start = expression.args.get("start")
 929        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 930        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 931        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 932        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 933        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 934        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 935        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 936        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 937        cycle_sql = ""
 938
 939        if cycle is not None:
 940            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 941            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 942
 943        sequence_opts = ""
 944        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 945            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 946            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 947
 948        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 949        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 950
 951        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 952
 953    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 954        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 955    ) -> str:
 956        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 957        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 958        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 959
 960    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 961        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 962    ) -> str:
 963        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 964
 965    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 966        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 967
 968    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 969        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 970
 971    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 972        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 973        if desc is not None:
 974            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 975        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 976
 977    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 978        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 979        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 980        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 981        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 982        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 983        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 984        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 985        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 986
 987    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 988        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 989
 990    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 991        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 992        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 993        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 994        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 995
 996        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 997
 998        properties_sql = ""
 999        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1000            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1001        ):
1002            properties_sql = self.sql(
1003                exp.Properties(
1004                    expressions=[
1005                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1006                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1007                    ]
1008                )
1009            )
1010
1011            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1012                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1013            elif not self.pretty:
1014                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1015                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1016
1017        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1018        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1019
1020        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1021        if expression_sql:
1022            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1023
1024            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1025                postalias_props_sql = ""
1026                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1027                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1028                        exp.Properties(
1029                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1030                        ),
1031                        wrapped=False,
1032                    )
1033                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1034                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1035
1036        postindex_props_sql = ""
1037        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1038            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1039                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1040                wrapped=False,
1041                prefix=" ",
1042            )
1043
1044        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1045        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1046        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1047
1048        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1049        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1050        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1051
1052        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1053        if clustered is None:
1054            clustered_sql = ""
1055        elif clustered:
1056            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1057        else:
1058            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1059
1060        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1061        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1062            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1063                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1064                sep=" ",
1065                prefix=" ",
1066                wrapped=False,
1067            )
1068
1069        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1070
1071        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1072        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1073            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1074                exp.Properties(
1075                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1076                ),
1077                sep=" ",
1078                prefix=" ",
1079                wrapped=False,
1080            )
1081
1082        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1083        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1084        no_schema_binding = (
1085            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1086        )
1087
1088        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1089        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1090
1091        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1092        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1093
1094    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1095        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1096        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1097        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1098        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1099        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1100        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1101        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1102        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1103        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1104        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1105
1106        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1107        if cache is None:
1108            cache_str = ""
1109        elif cache is True:
1110            cache_str = " CACHE"
1111        else:
1112            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1113
1114        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1115        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1116
1117        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1118
1119    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1120        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1121        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1122        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1123        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1124
1125    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1126        style = expression.args.get("style")
1127        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1128        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1129        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1130        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1131
1132    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1133        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1134        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1135
1136    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1137        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1138        if with_:
1139            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1140        return sql
1141
1142    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1143        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1144        recursive = (
1145            "RECURSIVE "
1146            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1147            else ""
1148        )
1149
1150        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1151
1152    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1153        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1154
1155        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1156        if materialized is False:
1157            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1158        elif materialized:
1159            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1160
1161        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1162
1163    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1164        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1165        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1166        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1167
1168        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1169            columns = ""
1170            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1171
1172        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1173            alias = self._next_name()
1174
1175        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1176
1177    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1178        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1179        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1180            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1181        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1182
1183    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1184        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1185        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1186            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1187        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1188
1189    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1190        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1191        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1192            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1193        return this
1194
1195    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1196        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1197        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1198
1199        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1200            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1201            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1202        else:
1203            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1204            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1205
1206        if escape:
1207            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1208            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1209        else:
1210            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1211            escape_sql = ""
1212
1213        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1214            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1215
1216        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1217
1218    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1219        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1220        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1221
1222    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1223        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1224        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1225        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1226        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1227
1228    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1229        nested = ""
1230        values = ""
1231        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1232
1233        type_value = expression.this
1234        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1235            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1236        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1237            type_sql = (
1238                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1239                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1240                else type_value
1241            )
1242        else:
1243            return interior
1244
1245        if interior:
1246            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1247                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1248                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1249                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1250                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1251                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1252            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1253                nested = f" {interior}"
1254            else:
1255                nested = f"({interior})"
1256
1257        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1258        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1259            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1260            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1261        ):
1262            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1263
1264        return type_sql
1265
1266    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1267        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1268        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1269        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1270        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1271
1272    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1275        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1276        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1277        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1278        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1279        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1280        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1281        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1282        if self.RETURNING_END:
1283            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1284        else:
1285            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1286        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1287
1288    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1290        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1291        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1292        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1293        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1294        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1295        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1296        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1297        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1298        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1299        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1300        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1301        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1302        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1303        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1304
1305    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1306        op_type = type(expression)
1307        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1308
1309        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1310        if (
1311            distinct is False
1312            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1313            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1314        ):
1315            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1316
1317        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1318
1319        if distinct is None:
1320            distinct = default_distinct
1321            if distinct is None:
1322                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1323
1324        if distinct is default_distinct:
1325            kind = ""
1326        else:
1327            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1328
1329        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1330        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1331
1332    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1333        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1334            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1335            order = expression.args.get("order")
1336
1337            if limit or order:
1338                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1339
1340                if limit:
1341                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1342                if order:
1343                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1344                return self.sql(select)
1345
1346        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1347        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1348
1349        while stack:
1350            node = stack.pop()
1351
1352            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1353                stack.append(node.expression)
1354                stack.append(
1355                    self.maybe_comment(
1356                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1357                    )
1358                )
1359                stack.append(node.this)
1360            else:
1361                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1362
1363        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1364        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1365        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1366
1367    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1368        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1369        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1370        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1371        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1372        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1373            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1374        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1375        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1376
1377    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1378        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1379            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1380            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1381            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1382
1383        agg = expression.this
1384        agg_arg = agg.this
1385        cond = expression.expression.this
1386        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1387        return self.sql(agg)
1388
1389    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1390        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1391            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1392            return ""
1393
1394        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1395
1396    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1397        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1398        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1399        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1400        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1401        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1402        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1403        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1404        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1405        if include:
1406            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1407        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1408        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1409        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1410        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1411        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1412        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1413
1414        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1415
1416    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1417        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1418        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1419        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1420        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1421        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1422        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1423        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1424
1425        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1426
1427        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1428        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1429
1430    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1431        text = expression.name
1432        lower = text.lower()
1433        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1434        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1435        if (
1436            expression.quoted
1437            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1438            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1439            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1440        ):
1441            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1442        return text
1443
1444    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1445        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1446        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1447            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1448
1449        return text
1450
1451    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1452        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1453        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1454            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1455        return text
1456
1457    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1458        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1459        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1460        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1461        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1462        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1463
1464    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1465        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1466        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1467
1468    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1469        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1470
1471    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1472        root_properties = []
1473        with_properties = []
1474
1475        for p in expression.expressions:
1476            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1477            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1478                with_properties.append(p)
1479            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1480                root_properties.append(p)
1481
1482        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1483        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1484
1485        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1486            with_props = " " + with_props
1487
1488        return root_props + with_props
1489
1490    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1491        if properties.expressions:
1492            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1493        return ""
1494
1495    def properties(
1496        self,
1497        properties: exp.Properties,
1498        prefix: str = "",
1499        sep: str = ", ",
1500        suffix: str = "",
1501        wrapped: bool = True,
1502    ) -> str:
1503        if properties.expressions:
1504            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1505            if expressions:
1506                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1507                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1508        return ""
1509
1510    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1511        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1512
1513    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1514        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1515        for p in properties.expressions:
1516            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1517            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1518                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1519            else:
1520                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1521
1522        return properties_locs
1523
1524    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1525        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1526            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1527        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1528
1529    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1530        property_cls = expression.__class__
1531        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1532            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1533
1534        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1535        if not property_name:
1536            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1537
1538        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1539
1540    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1541        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1542            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1543            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1544
1545            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1546            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1547                like = f"({like})"
1548
1549            return like
1550
1551        if expression.expressions:
1552            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1553
1554        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1555        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1556
1557    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1558        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1559        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1560        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1561
1562    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1563        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1564        local = expression.args.get("local")
1565        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1566        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1567        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1568        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1569        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1570
1571    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1572        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1573        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1574        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1575
1576    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1577        if expression.args.get("default"):
1578            property = "DEFAULT"
1579        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1580            property = "ON"
1581        else:
1582            property = "OFF"
1583        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1584
1585    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1586        if expression.args.get("no"):
1587            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1588        if expression.args.get("default"):
1589            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1590
1591        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1592        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1593
1594    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1595        default = expression.args.get("default")
1596        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1597        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1598        if default or minimum or maximum:
1599            if default:
1600                prop = "DEFAULT"
1601            elif minimum:
1602                prop = "MINIMUM"
1603            else:
1604                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1605            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1606        units = expression.args.get("units")
1607        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1608        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1609
1610    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1611        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1612        always = expression.args.get("always")
1613        default = expression.args.get("default")
1614        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1615        never = expression.args.get("never")
1616
1617        if autotemp is not None:
1618            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1619        elif always:
1620            prop = "ALWAYS"
1621        elif default:
1622            prop = "DEFAULT"
1623        elif manual:
1624            prop = "MANUAL"
1625        elif never:
1626            prop = "NEVER"
1627        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1628
1629    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1630        no = expression.args.get("no")
1631        no = " NO" if no else ""
1632        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1633        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1634        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1635        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1636        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1637
1638    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1639        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1640            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1641        if expression.this:
1642            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1643            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1644            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1645
1646        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1647        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1648        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1649
1650    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1652
1653        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1654        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1655            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1656        else:
1657            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1658
1659        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1660
1661    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1662        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1663        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1664        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1665        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1666        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1667        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1668        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1669
1670    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1671        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1672        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1673        statistics_sql = ""
1674        if statistics is not None:
1675            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1676        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1677
1678    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1679        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1680        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1681        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1682        data_consistency = (
1683            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1684        )
1685        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1686        retention_period = (
1687            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1688        )
1689
1690        if this:
1691            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1692        else:
1693            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1694
1695        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1696
1697        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1698
1699    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1700        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1701        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1702
1703        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1704            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1705        else:
1706            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1707
1708        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1709        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1710        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1711        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1712        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1713        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1714        if is_function:
1715            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1716        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1717
1718        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1719        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1720        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1721        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1722        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1723        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1724        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1725        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1726
1727        if self.RETURNING_END:
1728            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1729        else:
1730            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1731
1732        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1733        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1734        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1735        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1736
1737        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1738        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1739
1740        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1741        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1742
1743    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1744        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1745
1746    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1747        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1748        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1749        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1750        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1751        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1752
1753    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1754        return expression.name
1755
1756    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1757        return expression.name
1758
1759    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1760        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1761
1762        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1763        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1764
1765        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1766        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1767        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1768
1769        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1770        if expressions:
1771            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1772            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1773
1774        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1775
1776    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1777        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1778
1779    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1780        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1781        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1782        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1783        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1784        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1785        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1786        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1787        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1788        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1789        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1790        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1791        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1792        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1793
1794    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1795        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1796
1797    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1798        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1799        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1800        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1801        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1802
1803    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1805        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1806        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1807        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1808
1809    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1810        return ".".join(
1811            self.sql(part)
1812            for part in (
1813                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1814                expression.args.get("db"),
1815                expression.args.get("this"),
1816            )
1817            if part is not None
1818        )
1819
1820    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1821        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1822        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1823        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1824        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1825        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1826        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1827        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1828        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1829
1830        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1831        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1832            sample_pre_alias = sample
1833            sample_post_alias = ""
1834        else:
1835            sample_pre_alias = ""
1836            sample_post_alias = sample
1837
1838        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1839        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1840        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1841        joins = self.indent(
1842            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1843        )
1844        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1845
1846        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1847        if file_format:
1848            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1849            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1850            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1851
1852        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1853        if ordinality:
1854            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1855            alias = ""
1856
1857        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1858        if when:
1859            table = f"{table} {when}"
1860
1861        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1862        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1863
1864        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1865        if rows_from:
1866            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1867
1868        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1869
1870    def tablesample_sql(
1871        self,
1872        expression: exp.TableSample,
1873        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1874    ) -> str:
1875        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1876        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1877        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1878        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1879        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1880        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1881        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1882        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1883        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1884
1885        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1886        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1887            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1888
1889        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1890        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1891            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1892
1893        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1894        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1895            expr = f"({expr})"
1896
1897        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1898
1899    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1900        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1901
1902        if expression.this:
1903            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1904            if not expressions:
1905                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1906
1907            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1908            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1909            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1910            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1911            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1912
1913        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1914        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1915        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1916
1917        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1918        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1919            field = f"IN ({field})"
1920
1921        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1922        if include_nulls is not None:
1923            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1924        else:
1925            nulls = ""
1926
1927        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1928        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1929        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1930
1931    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1932        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1933        kind = expression.text("kind")
1934        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1935        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1936
1937    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1938        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1939
1940    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1941        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1942        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1943        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1944        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1945        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1946        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1947        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1948        if self.RETURNING_END:
1949            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1950        else:
1951            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1952        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1953        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1954
1955    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1956        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1957
1958        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1959        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1960            args = self.expressions(expression)
1961            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1962            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1963            values = (
1964                f"({values})"
1965                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1966                else values
1967            )
1968            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1969
1970        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1971        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1972        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1973
1974        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1975
1976        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1977            row = tup.expressions
1978
1979            if i == 0 and column_names:
1980                row = [
1981                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1982                ]
1983
1984            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1985
1986        if self.pretty:
1987            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1988            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1989            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1990            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1991            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1992
1993        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1994        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1995        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1996
1997    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1998        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1999
2000    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2001        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2002        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2003        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2004
2005    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2006        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2007
2008    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2009        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2010        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2011
2012    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2013        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2014        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2015
2016    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2017        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2018        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2019
2020    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2021        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2022        if group_by_all is True:
2023            modifier = " ALL"
2024        elif group_by_all is False:
2025            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2026        else:
2027            modifier = ""
2028
2029        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2030
2031        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2032        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2033        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2034
2035        groupings = csv(
2036            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2037            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2038            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2039            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2040            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2041        )
2042
2043        if (
2044            expression.expressions
2045            and groupings
2046            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2047        ):
2048            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2049
2050        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2051
2052    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2053        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2054        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2055
2056    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2057        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2058        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2059        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2060        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2061        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2062        return start + connect
2063
2064    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2065        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2066
2067    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2068        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2069            side = None
2070        else:
2071            side = expression.side
2072
2073        op_sql = " ".join(
2074            op
2075            for op in (
2076                expression.method,
2077                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2078                side,
2079                expression.kind,
2080                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2081            )
2082            if op
2083        )
2084        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2085        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2086        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2087        using = expression.args.get("using")
2088
2089        if not on_sql and using:
2090            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2091
2092        this = expression.this
2093        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2094
2095        if on_sql:
2096            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2097            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2098            if using:
2099                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2100            else:
2101                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2102        elif not op_sql:
2103            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2104                return f" {this_sql}"
2105
2106            return f", {this_sql}"
2107
2108        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2109            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2110
2111        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2112
2113    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2114        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2115        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2116        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2117
2118    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2119        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2120
2121        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2122        if cross_apply is True:
2123            op = "INNER JOIN "
2124        elif cross_apply is False:
2125            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2126        else:
2127            op = ""
2128
2129        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2130
2131    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2132        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2133
2134        if expression.args.get("view"):
2135            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2136            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2137            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2138            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2139            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2140            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2141
2142        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2143        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2144        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2145
2146    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2148
2149        args = [
2150            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2151            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2152            if e
2153        ]
2154
2155        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2156        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2157        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2158        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2159
2160        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2161
2162    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2164        value = expression.expression
2165        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2166        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2167        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2168        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2169
2170    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2171        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2172        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2175        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2176        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2177        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2178        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2179
2180    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2181        expressions = (
2182            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2183        )
2184        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2185        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2186
2187    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2188        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2189
2190    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2191        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2192            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2193            return ""
2194
2195        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2196        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2197        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2198        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2199
2200        if wait is not None:
2201            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2202                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2203            else:
2204                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2205
2206        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2207
2208    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2209        text = expression.this or ""
2210        if expression.is_string:
2211            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2212        return text
2213
2214    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2215        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2216            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2217            text = "".join(
2218                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2219            )
2220
2221        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2222            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2223        )
2224
2225    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2226        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2227        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2228        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2229        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2230        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2231        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2232        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2233        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2234        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2235        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2236        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2237
2238    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2239        return "NULL"
2240
2241    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2242        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2243
2244    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2246        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2247        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2248        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2249
2250    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2251        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2252        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2253        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2254        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2255        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2256        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2257        interpolated_values = [
2258            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2259            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2260        ]
2261        interpolate = (
2262            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2263        )
2264        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2265
2266    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2267        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2268
2269    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2270        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2271
2272    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2273        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2274
2275    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2276        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2277        asc = not desc
2278
2279        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2280        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2281        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2282        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2283        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2284
2285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2286
2287        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2288        nulls_sort_change = ""
2289        if nulls_first and (
2290            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2291        ):
2292            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2293        elif (
2294            nulls_last
2295            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2296            and not nulls_are_last
2297        ):
2298            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2299
2300        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2301        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2302            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2303            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2304                self.unsupported(
2305                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2306                )
2307                nulls_sort_change = ""
2308            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2309                if expression.this.is_int:
2310                    self.unsupported(
2311                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2312                    )
2313                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2314                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2315                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2316                nulls_sort_change = ""
2317
2318        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2319        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2320
2321        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2322
2323    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2324        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2325        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2326
2327        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2328
2329        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2330
2331    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2332        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2333        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2334        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2335        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2336        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2337        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2338        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2339        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2340        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2341        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2342        definition_sqls = [
2343            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2344            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2345        ]
2346        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2347        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2348        body = "".join(
2349            (
2350                partition,
2351                order,
2352                measures,
2353                rows,
2354                after,
2355                pattern,
2356                define,
2357            )
2358        )
2359        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2360        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2361        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2362
2363    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2364        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2365
2366        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2367            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2368        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2369            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2370
2371        return csv(
2372            *sqls,
2373            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2374            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2375            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2376            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2377            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2378            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2379            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2380            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2381            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2382            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2383            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2384            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2385            self.options_modifier(expression),
2386            sep="",
2387        )
2388
2389    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2390        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2391        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2392
2393    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2394        return ""
2395
2396    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2397        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2398    ) -> t.List[str]:
2399        return [
2400            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2401            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2402        ]
2403
2404    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2405        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2406        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2407        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2408
2409    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2410        into = expression.args.get("into")
2411        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2412            into.pop()
2413
2414        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2415        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2416        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2417        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2418
2419        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2420        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2421            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2422            limit.pop()
2423        else:
2424            top = ""
2425
2426        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2427
2428        if kind:
2429            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2430                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2431            else:
2432                if kind == "STRUCT":
2433                    expressions = self.expressions(
2434                        sqls=[
2435                            self.sql(
2436                                exp.Struct(
2437                                    expressions=[
2438                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2439                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2440                                        else e
2441                                        for e in expression.expressions
2442                                    ]
2443                                )
2444                            )
2445                        ]
2446                    )
2447                kind = ""
2448
2449        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2450        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2451        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2452        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2453        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2454            expression,
2455            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2456            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2457            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2458        )
2459
2460        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2461
2462        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2463            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2464                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2465            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2466                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2467            else:
2468                table_kind = ""
2469            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2470
2471        return sql
2472
2473    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2474        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2475        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2476        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2477
2478    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2479        if expression.expressions:
2480            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2481        return ""
2482
2483    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2484        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2485        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2486        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2487        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2488        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2489        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2490        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2491
2492    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2493        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2494        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2495
2496    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2497        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2498        kind = expression.text("kind")
2499        if kind:
2500            kind = f"{kind}."
2501        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2502
2503    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2504        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2505
2506    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2507        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2508        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2509        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2510        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2511            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2512
2513            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2514            expression.set("sample", None)
2515
2516        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2517        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2518        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2519
2520    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2521        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2522        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2523
2524    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2525        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2526
2527        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2528        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2529
2530        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2531            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2532                alias.append("columns", offset)
2533
2534        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2535            columns = alias.columns
2536            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2537        else:
2538            alias = self.sql(alias)
2539
2540        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2541        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2542            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2543        else:
2544            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2545                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2546            elif offset:
2547                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2548            else:
2549                suffix = alias
2550
2551        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2552
2553    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2554        return ""
2555
2556    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2557        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2558        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2559
2560    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2562        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2563        order = expression.args.get("order")
2564        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2565        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2566        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2567        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2568
2569        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2570
2571        first = expression.args.get("first")
2572        if first is None:
2573            first = ""
2574        else:
2575            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2576
2577        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2578            return f"{this} {alias}"
2579
2580        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2581        return f"{this} ({args})"
2582
2583    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2584        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2585        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2586
2587    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2588        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2589        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2590        end = (
2591            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2592            or "CURRENT ROW"
2593        )
2594        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2595
2596    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2598        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2599        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2600
2601    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2602        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2603        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2604        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2605        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2606
2607    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2608        return apply_index_offset(
2609            expression.this,
2610            expression.expressions,
2611            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2612        )
2613
2614    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2615        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2616        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2617        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2618
2619    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2620        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2621
2622    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2623        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2624        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2625            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2626                this = self.wrap(this)
2627            return f"ANY{this}"
2628        return f"ANY {this}"
2629
2630    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2631        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2632
2633    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2634        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2635        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2636
2637        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2638            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2639            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2640
2641        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2642
2643        if default:
2644            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2645
2646        statements.append("END")
2647
2648        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2649            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2650
2651        return " ".join(statements)
2652
2653    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2654        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2655        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2656        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2657
2658    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2659        order = expression.args.get("order")
2660        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2661        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2662
2663    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2664        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2665        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2666        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2667
2668    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2669        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2670
2671        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2672            func_name = "LTRIM"
2673        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2674            func_name = "RTRIM"
2675        else:
2676            func_name = "TRIM"
2677
2678        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2679
2680    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2681        args = expression.expressions
2682        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2683            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2684
2685        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2686            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2687
2688        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2689            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2690
2691        return args
2692
2693    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2694        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2695
2696        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2697        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2698            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2699
2700        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2701
2702    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2703        return self.func(
2704            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2705        )
2706
2707    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2708        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2709        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2710
2711    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2712        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2713        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2714        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2715        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2716        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2717        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2718        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2719        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2720
2721    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2722        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2723        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2724        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2725        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2726
2727    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2728        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2729
2730    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2731        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2732        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2733        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2734
2735    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2736        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2737
2738    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2739        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2740        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2741            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2742
2743        return path
2744
2745    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2746        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2747            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2748            if not callable(transform):
2749                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2750                return ""
2751
2752            return transform(self, expression)
2753
2754        if isinstance(expression, int):
2755            return str(expression)
2756
2757        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2758            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2759            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2760        else:
2761            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2762            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2763
2764        return escaped
2765
2766    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2767        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2768
2769    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2770        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2771        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2772
2773        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2774        if unique_keys is not None:
2775            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2776        else:
2777            unique_keys = ""
2778
2779        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2780        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2781        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2782        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2783
2784        return self.func(
2785            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2786            *expression.expressions,
2787            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2788        )
2789
2790    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2791        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2792
2793    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2794        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2795        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2796        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2797        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2798        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2799        return self.func(
2800            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2801        )
2802
2803    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2804        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2805        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2806        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2807        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2808        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2809        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2810        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2811        return self.func(
2812            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2813            this,
2814            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2815        )
2816
2817    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2818        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2819        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2820        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2821
2822        if nested_schema:
2823            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2824
2825        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2826        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2827        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2828        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2829
2830    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2831        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2832
2833    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2835        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2836        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2837        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2838        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2839        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2840        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2841        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2842        return self.func(
2843            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2844        )
2845
2846    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2847        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2848        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2849        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2850        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2851        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2852        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2853
2854    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2856        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2857        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2858        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2859        with_ = (
2860            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2861            if expressions
2862            else ""
2863        )
2864        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2865
2866    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2867        query = expression.args.get("query")
2868        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2869        field = expression.args.get("field")
2870        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2871
2872        if query:
2873            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2874        elif unnest:
2875            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2876        elif field:
2877            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2878        else:
2879            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2880
2881        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2882
2883    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2884        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2885
2886    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2887        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2888        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2889            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2890        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2891
2892        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2893            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2894            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2895
2896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2897        if this:
2898            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2899            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2900
2901        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2902
2903    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2904        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2905
2906    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2907        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2908        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2909        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2910        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2911        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2912        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2913
2914    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2915        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2916        parent = expression.parent
2917        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2918        return self.func(
2919            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2920        )
2921
2922    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2923        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2924        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2925
2926    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2927        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2928        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2929        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2930        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2931
2932    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2933        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2934
2935    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2936        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2937        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2938        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2939
2940    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2941        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2942
2943        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2944        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2945
2946        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2947            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2948        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2949            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2950
2951        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2952
2953    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2954        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2955
2956    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2957        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2958        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2959        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2960
2961    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2962        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2963        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2964        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2965
2966    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2967        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2968        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2969        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2970
2971    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2972        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2973
2974    def and_sql(
2975        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2976    ) -> str:
2977        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2978
2979    def or_sql(
2980        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2981    ) -> str:
2982        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2983
2984    def xor_sql(
2985        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2986    ) -> str:
2987        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2988
2989    def connector_sql(
2990        self,
2991        expression: exp.Connector,
2992        op: str,
2993        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2994    ) -> str:
2995        if stack is not None:
2996            if expression.expressions:
2997                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2998            else:
2999                stack.append(expression.right)
3000                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3001                    for comment in expression.comments:
3002                        if comment:
3003                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3004                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3005            return op
3006
3007        stack = [expression]
3008        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3009        ops = set()
3010
3011        while stack:
3012            node = stack.pop()
3013            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3014                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3015            else:
3016                sql = self.sql(node)
3017                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3018                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3019                else:
3020                    sqls.append(sql)
3021
3022        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3023        return sep.join(sqls)
3024
3025    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3026        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3027
3028    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3029        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3030
3031    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3032        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3033
3034    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3035        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3036
3037    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3038        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3039
3040    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3041        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3042
3043    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3044        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3045        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3046        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3047        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3048        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3049        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3050        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3051
3052    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3053        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3054        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3055
3056    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3057        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3058            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3059        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3060
3061    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3062        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3063
3064    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3066        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3067        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3068        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3069        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3070        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3071
3072    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3074        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3075        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3076        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3077        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3078        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3079        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3080        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3081        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3082
3083    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3084        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3085        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3086        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3087        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3088
3089        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3090            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3091
3092        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3093
3094    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3095        return "BEGIN"
3096
3097    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3098        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3099        if chain is not None:
3100            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3101
3102        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3103
3104    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3105        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3106        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3107        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3108
3109    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3110        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3111
3112        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3113        if dtype:
3114            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3115            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3116            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3117            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3118            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3119
3120        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3121        if default:
3122            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3123
3124        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3125        if comment:
3126            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3127
3128        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3129        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3130
3131        if not drop and not allow_null:
3132            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3133
3134        if allow_null is not None:
3135            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3136            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3137
3138        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3139
3140    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3141        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3142        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3143            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3144        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3145
3146    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3147        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3148        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3149        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3150        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3151        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3152
3153    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3154        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3155            # Remove db from tables
3156            expression = expression.transform(
3157                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3158            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3160        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3161
3162    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3163        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3164        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3165        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3166        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3167
3168    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3169        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3170        return f"SET {exprs}"
3171
3172    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3173        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3174
3175        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3176            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3177        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3178            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3179        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3180            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3181        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3182            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3183        else:
3184            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3185
3186        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3187        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3188        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3189        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3190        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3191        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3192        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3193        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3194
3195    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3196        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3197            return self.expressions(
3198                expression,
3199                key="actions",
3200                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3201                skip_first=True,
3202            )
3203        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3204
3205    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3206        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3207        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3208        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3209
3210    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3211        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3212
3213    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3214        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3215
3216        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3217            case = exp.case()
3218            for arg in expression.expressions:
3219                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3220            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3221
3222        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3223
3224        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3225        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3226        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3227
3228    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3229        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3230
3231    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3232        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3233
3234    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3235        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3236        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3237        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3238        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3239
3240    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3241        return self.sql(
3242            exp.Cast(
3243                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3244                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3245            )
3246        )
3247
3248    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3249        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3250            return self.func(
3251                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3252            )
3253        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3254
3255    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3256        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3257
3258        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3259            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3260
3261        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3262            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3263                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3264
3265        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3266            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3267                return self.sql(
3268                    exp.cast(
3269                        l / r,
3270                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3271                    )
3272                )
3273
3274        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3275
3276    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3277        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3278
3279    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3280        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3281
3282    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3283        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3284
3285    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3286        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3287
3288    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3290
3291    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3293
3294    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3296
3297    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3298        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3299
3300    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3301        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3302
3303    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3304        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3305
3306    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3307        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3308
3309    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3310        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3311            return self.sql(
3312                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3313            )
3314        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3315
3316    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3317        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3318
3319    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3320        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3321
3322    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3323        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3324
3325    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3326        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3327
3328    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3329        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3330
3331    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3332        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3333
3334    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3335        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3336
3337    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3338        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3339
3340    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3341        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3342
3343    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3344        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3345
3346    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3347        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3348
3349    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3350        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3351
3352    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3353        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3354
3355    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3356        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3357            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3358            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3359
3360        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3361
3362    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3363        this = expression.this
3364        expr = expression.expression
3365
3366        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3367            this, expr = expr, this
3368        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3369            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3370                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3371
3372            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3373
3374        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3375
3376    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3377        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3378        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3380        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3381        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3382
3383    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3384        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3385        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3386        binary_type = type(expression)
3387
3388        while stack:
3389            node = stack.pop()
3390
3391            if type(node) is binary_type:
3392                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3393                if op_func:
3394                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3395
3396                stack.append(node.right)
3397                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3398                stack.append(node.left)
3399            else:
3400                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3401
3402        return "".join(sqls)
3403
3404    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3405        args = []
3406
3407        for key in expression.arg_types:
3408            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3409
3410            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3411                for value in arg_value:
3412                    args.append(value)
3413            elif arg_value is not None:
3414                args.append(arg_value)
3415
3416        if self.normalize_functions:
3417            name = expression.sql_name()
3418        else:
3419            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3420
3421        return self.func(name, *args)
3422
3423    def func(
3424        self,
3425        name: str,
3426        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3427        prefix: str = "(",
3428        suffix: str = ")",
3429        normalize: bool = True,
3430    ) -> str:
3431        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3432        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3433
3434    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3435        arg_sqls = tuple(
3436            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3437        )
3438        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3439            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3440        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3441
3442    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3443        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3444
3445    def format_time(
3446        self,
3447        expression: exp.Expression,
3448        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3449        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3450    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3451        return format_time(
3452            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3453            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3454            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3455        )
3456
3457    def expressions(
3458        self,
3459        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3460        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3461        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3462        flat: bool = False,
3463        indent: bool = True,
3464        skip_first: bool = False,
3465        skip_last: bool = False,
3466        sep: str = ", ",
3467        prefix: str = "",
3468        dynamic: bool = False,
3469        new_line: bool = False,
3470    ) -> str:
3471        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3472
3473        if not expressions:
3474            return ""
3475
3476        if flat:
3477            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3478
3479        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3480        result_sqls = []
3481
3482        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3483            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3484            if not sql:
3485                continue
3486
3487            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3488
3489            if self.pretty:
3490                if self.leading_comma:
3491                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3492                else:
3493                    result_sqls.append(
3494                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3495                    )
3496            else:
3497                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3498
3499        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3500            if new_line:
3501                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3502                result_sqls.append("")
3503            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3504        else:
3505            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3506
3507        return (
3508            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3509            if indent
3510            else result_sql
3511        )
3512
3513    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3514        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3515        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3516        if flat:
3517            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3518        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3519
3520    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3521        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3522        if not property_name:
3523            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3524        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3525
3526    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3527        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3528
3529    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3530        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3531
3532    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3534        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3535        expressions = (
3536            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3537        )
3538        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3539
3540    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3541        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3542        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3543        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3544
3545    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3546        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3547
3548    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3549        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3550        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3551        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3552        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3553
3554        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3555        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3556            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3557            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3558            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3559            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3560        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3561            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3562                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3563            else:
3564                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3565        else:
3566            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3567        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3568
3569    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3570        table = expression.this
3571        table_alias = ""
3572
3573        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3574        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3575            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3576            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3577
3578        this = self.sql(table)
3579        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3580        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3581        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3582        sep = self.sep()
3583
3584        return self.prepend_ctes(
3585            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3586        )
3587
3588    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3589        if expression.args.get("format"):
3590            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3591
3592        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3593
3594    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3595        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3596            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3597            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3598
3599        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3600        if not fmt:
3601            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3602            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3603
3604        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3605
3606    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3607        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3608        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3609        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3610        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3611        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3612
3613    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3615        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3616        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3617        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3618
3619    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3620        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3621
3622    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3623        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3624
3625    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3626    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3627        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3628        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3629        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3630        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3631        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3632        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3633        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3634
3635    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3636        return ""
3637
3638    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3639        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3640        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3641        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3642        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3643        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3644
3645    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3647        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3648
3649        if having:
3650            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3651
3652        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3653
3654    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3655        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3656        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3657        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3658        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3659        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3660        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3661        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3662        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3663        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3664        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3665        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3666        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3667        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3668
3669    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3670        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3671        if key_block_size:
3672            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3673
3674        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3675        if using:
3676            return f"USING {using}"
3677
3678        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3679        if parser:
3680            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3681
3682        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3683        if comment:
3684            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3685
3686        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3687        if visible is not None:
3688            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3689
3690        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3691        if engine_attr:
3692            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3693
3694        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3695        if secondary_engine_attr:
3696            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3697
3698        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3699        return ""
3700
3701    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3702        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3703        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3704
3705    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3706        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3707        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3709        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3710        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3711        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3712        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3713        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3714        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3715        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3716        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3717
3718    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3719        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3720            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3721
3722        case = exp.Case().when(
3723            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3724            expression.args["true"],
3725            copy=False,
3726        )
3727        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3728        if else_cond:
3729            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3730
3731        return self.sql(case)
3732
3733    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3735        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3736        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3737        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3738        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3739        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3740
3741    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3742        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3743
3744    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3745        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3746
3747    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3748        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3749        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3750        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3751        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3752        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3753        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3754
3755    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3756        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3757        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3758        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3759
3760    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3761        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3762        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3763        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3764
3765    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3766        arg = expression.this
3767        if not arg.type:
3768            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3769
3770            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3771
3772        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3773            return self.sql(arg)
3774
3775        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3776        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3777
3778    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3779        this = expression.this
3780        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3781            return self.sql(this)
3782
3783        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3784
3785    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3786        this = expression.this
3787        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3788            return self.sql(this)
3789
3790        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3791
3792    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3793        this = expression.this
3794        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3795
3796        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3797            return self.sql(
3798                exp.cast(
3799                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3800                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3801                )
3802            )
3803
3804        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3805            return self.sql(this)
3806
3807        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3808
3809    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3810        return self.sql(
3811            exp.func(
3812                "DATEDIFF",
3813                expression.this,
3814                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3815                "day",
3816            )
3817        )
3818
3819    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3820        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3821            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3822
3823        unit = expression.text("unit")
3824        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3825            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3826
3827        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3828
3829    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3830        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3831
3832        return self.func(
3833            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3834        )
3835
3836    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3837        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3838            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3839            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3840            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3841            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3842
3843        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3844
3845        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3846        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3847            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3848
3849        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3850
3851    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3852        expression.set(
3853            "expressions",
3854            [
3855                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3856                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3857                else e
3858                for e in expression.expressions
3859            ],
3860        )
3861
3862        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3863
3864    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3865        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3866        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3867
3868        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3869
3870    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3871        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3872        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3873
3874        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3875
3876        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3877        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3878
3879        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3880        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3881
3882        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3883        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3884
3885        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3886        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3887
3888        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3889
3890    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3891    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3892    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3893        to = expression.this
3894        value = expression.expression
3895        style = expression.args.get("style")
3896        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3897        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3898
3899        if not to or not value:
3900            return ""
3901
3902        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3903        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3904            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3905
3906        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3907        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3908
3909        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3910        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3911            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3912
3913            style_value = style.name
3914            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3915            if not converted_style:
3916                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3917
3918            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3919
3920            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3921                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3922            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3923                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3924            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3925                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3926            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3927                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3928
3929        if not transformed:
3930            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3931
3932        return self.sql(transformed)
3933
3934    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3935        this = expression.this
3936        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3937            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3938            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3939
3940        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3941            return f".{this}"
3942
3943        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3944        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3945
3946    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3947        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3948        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3949
3950    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3951        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3952            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3953
3954            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3955
3956        return expression
3957
3958    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3959        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3960            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3961            mods = sorted(
3962                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3963                key=lambda x: 0
3964                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3965                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3966            )
3967
3968            if mods:
3969                mod = mods[0]
3970                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3971                this.meta["inline"] = True
3972                mod.this.replace(this)
3973                return self.sql(expression.this)
3974
3975            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3976
3977            if agg_func:
3978                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3979
3980        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3981
3982    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3983        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3984        if self.pretty:
3985            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3986        return string
3987
3988    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3989        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3990
3991        if expression.expressions:
3992            upper = option.upper()
3993
3994            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3995            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3996
3997            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3998            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3999            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4000            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4001
4002        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4003
4004        if not value:
4005            return option
4006
4007        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4008
4009        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4010
4011    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4012        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4013        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4014            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4015            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4016            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4017        else:
4018            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4019            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4020            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4021
4022        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4023        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4024
4025        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4026        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4027
4028        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4029        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4030
4031        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4032        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4033
4034        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4035
4036    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4038        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4039
4040        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4041        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4042        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4043        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4044
4045        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4046        params = self.expressions(
4047            expression,
4048            key="params",
4049            sep=sep,
4050            new_line=True,
4051            skip_last=True,
4052            skip_first=True,
4053            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4054        )
4055
4056        if params:
4057            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4058                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4059            elif not self.pretty:
4060                params = f" {params}"
4061
4062        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4063
4064    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4065        return ""
4066
4067    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4068        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4069        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4070        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4071        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4072        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4073
4074        if filter_col or retention_period:
4075            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4076
4077        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4078
4079    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4080        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4081    ) -> str:
4082        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4083        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4084        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4085        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4086
4087    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4089        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4090        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4091
4092    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4093        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4094
4095    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4097        expr = expression.expression
4098
4099        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4100            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4101            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4102        else:
4103            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4104
4105        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4106
4107    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4108        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4109            return self.sql(expression.this)
4110
4111        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4112
4113    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4114        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4115        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4116
4117        if lower and upper:
4118            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4119        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4120
4121    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4122        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4123        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4124        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4125        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4126        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4127        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4128
4129        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4130
4131    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4132        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4133
4134        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4135        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4136            fill_pattern = "' '"
4137
4138        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4139
4140    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4141        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4142        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4143
4144    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4145        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4146
4147        parent = expression.parent
4148        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4149            parent = parent.parent
4150
4151        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4152            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4153
4154        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4155            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4156
4157        return self.sql(generate_series)
4158
4159    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4160        exprs = expression.expressions
4161        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4162            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4163        else:
4164            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4165
4166        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4167
4168    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4169        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4170            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4171
4172        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4173        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4174        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4175
4176        if source_tz and timestamp:
4177            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4178                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4179            )
4180
4181        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4182
4183        return self.sql(expr)
4184
4185    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4187        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4188
4189        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4190
4191        if _with is None:
4192            with_sql = ""
4193        elif not _with:
4194            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4195        else:
4196            with_sql = " WITH"
4197
4198        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4199
4200        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4201
4202    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4203        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4204            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4205
4206        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4207        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4208        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4209
4210        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4211        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4212
4213        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4214
4215    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4216        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4217        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4218        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4219        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4220        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4221
4222    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4223        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4224        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4225        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4226        return res
4227
4228    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4229        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4230        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4231        empty = (
4232            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4233            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4234            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4235        )
4236
4237        error = expression.args.get("error")
4238        error = (
4239            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4240            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4241            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4242        )
4243
4244        if error and empty:
4245            error = (
4246                f"{empty} {error}"
4247                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4248                else f"{error} {empty}"
4249            )
4250            empty = ""
4251
4252        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4253
4254        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4255
4256    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4257        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4258        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4259
4260        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4261        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4262
4263        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4264        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4265
4266        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4267
4268        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4269
4270    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4271        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4272
4273        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4274            parent = expression.parent
4275            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4276                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4277                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4278            else:
4279                array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {self.sql(expression, 'this')} IS NOT NULL)"
4280
4281        return array_agg